The Cryosphere www.the-cryosphere.net 1994-0416 1994-0424 3 2 2009 10.5194/tc-3-167-2009 http://www.the-cryosphere.net/3/167/2009/ http://www.the-cryosphere.net/3/167/2009/tc-3-167-2009.html http://www.the-cryosphere.net/3/167/2009/tc-3-167-2009.pdf 167 182 2009-08-03 Measurement of the specific surface area of snow using infrared reflectance in an integrating sphere at 1310 and 1550 nm J.-C. Gallet F. Domine florent@lgge.obs.ujf-grenoble.fr C. S. Zender G. Picard CNRS-INSU, Laboratoire de Glaciologie et Géophysique de l'Environnement, BP 96, 38402 Saint-Martin d'Hères, France Université Joseph Fourier, Grenoble I, France Department of Earth System Science, University of California, Irvine, USA Even though the specific surface area (SSA) and the snow area index (SAI) of snow are crucial variables to determine the chemical and climatic impact of the snow cover, few data are available on the subject. We propose here a novel method to measure snow SSA and SAI. It is based on the measurement of the hemispherical infrared reflectance of snow samples using the DUFISSS instrument (DUal Frequency Integrating Sphere for Snow SSA measurement). DUFISSS uses the 1310 or 1550 nm radiation of laser diodes, an integrating sphere 15 cm in diameter, and InGaAs photodiodes. For SSA<60 m² kg^−1, we use the 1310 nm radiation, reflectance is between 15 and 50% and the accuracy of SSA determination is 10%. For SSA>60 m² kg^−1, snow is usually of low density (typically 30 to 100 kg m^−3), resulting in insufficient optical depth and 1310 nm radiation reaches the bottom of the sample, causing artifacts. The 1550 nm radiation is therefore used for SSA>60 m² kg^−1. Reflectance is then in the range 5 to 12% and the accuracy on SSA is 12%. We propose empirical equations to determine SSA from reflectance at both wavelengths, with that for 1310 nm taking into account the snow density. DUFISSS has been used to measure the SSA of snow and the SAI of snowpacks in polar and Alpine regions. Aoki, T., Aoki, T., Fukabori, M., Hachikubo, A., Tachibana, Y., and Nishio, F.: Effects of snow physical parameters on spectral albedo and bidirectional reflectance of snow surface, J. Geophys. Res., 105D, 10219–10236, 2000. Beine, H. J., Honrath, R. E., Dominé, F., Simpson, W. R., and Fuentes, J. D.: NO_x During Background and Ozone Depletion Periods at Alert: Fluxes Above the Snow Surface, J. Geophys. Res., 107(D21), 4584, doi:10.1029/2002JD002082, 2002. Burniston, D. A., Strachan, W. J. M., Hoff, J. T., and Wania, F.: Changes in surface area and concentrations of semivolatile organic contaminants in aging snow, Environ. Sci. Technol., 41, 4932–4937, 2007. Cabanes, A., Legagneux, L., and Dominé, F.: Evolution of the specific surface area and of crystal morphology of Arctic fresh snow during the ALERT 2000 campaign, Atmos. Environ., 36, 2767–2777, 2002. Cabanes, A., Legagneux, L., and Dominé, F.: Rate of evolution of the specific surface area of surface snow layers, Environ. Sci. Technol., 37, 661–666, 2003 Coakley, J. A, Cess, R. D., and Yurevich, F. B.: The effect of tropospheric aerosols on the Earth's radiation budget: a parameterization for climate models, J. Atmos. Sci., 40, 116–138, 1983. Colbeck, S. C.: Ice crystal morphology and growth rates at low supersaturations and high temperatures, J. Appl. Phys., 54, 2677–2682, 1983. Coléou, C., Lesaffre, B., Brzoska, J.-B., Ludwig, W., and Boller, E.: Three-dimensional snow images by X-ray microtomography, Ann. Glaciol., 32, 75–81, 2001. Daly, G. L. and Wania, F.: Simulating the influence of snow on the fate of organic compounds, Environ. Sci. Technol., 38, 4176–4186, 2004. Davis, R. E., Dozier, J., and Perla, R.: Measurement of snow grain properties. In : Seasonal Snowcovers: Physics, Chemistry, Hydrology, edited by: Jones, H. G. and Orville-Thomas, W. J., D Reidel Publishing Dompany, 63–74, 1987. Dominé, F. and Shepson, P. B.: Air-snow interactions and atmospheric chemistry, Science, 297, 1506–1510, 2002. Dominé, F., Lauzier, T., Cabanes, A., Legagneux, L., Kuhs, W. F., Techmer, K., and Heinrichs, T.: Snow metamorphism as revealed by scanning electron microscopy, Microsc. Res. Tech., 62, 33–48, 2003. Domine, F., Salvatori, R., Legagneux, L., Salzano, R., Fily, M., and Casacchia, R.: Correlation between the specific surface area and the short wave infrared: SWIR reflectance of snow, Cold Regions Sci. Technol., 46, 60–68, 2006. Domine, F., Taillandier, A.-S., and Simpson, W. R.: A parameterization of the specific surface area of snow in models of snowpack evolution, based on 345 measurements, J. Geophys. Res., 112, F02031, doi:10.1029/2006JF000512, 2007a. Domine, F., Cincinelli, A., Bonnaud, E., Martellini, T., and Picaud, S.: Adsorption of Phenanthrene on Natural Snow, Environ. Sci. Technol., 41, 6033–6038, 2007b. Domine, F., Albert, M., Huthwelker, T., Jacobi, H.-W., Kokhanovsky, A., Lehning, M., Picard, G., and Simpson, W. R.: Snow Physics as Relevant to Snow Photochemistry, Atmos. Chem. Phys., 8, 171–208, 2008. Flanner, M. G. and Zender, C. S.: Linking snowpack microphysics and albedo evolution, J. Geophys. Res., 111, D12208, doi:10.1029/2005JD006834, 2006. Flanner, M. G., Zender, C. S., Randerson, J. T., Rasch, P. J.: Present-day climate forcing and response from black carbon in snow, J. Geophys. Res., 112, D11202, doi:10.1029/2006JD008003, 2007. Flin, F., Brzoska, J.-B., Lesaffre, B., Coléou, C., and Pieritz, R. A.: Full three-dimensional modelling of curvature-dependent snow metamorphism: first results and comparison with experimental tomographic data, J. Phys. D. Appl.Phys., 36, 1–6, 2003. Gosse, S., Labrie, D., and Chylek, P.: Refractive index of ice in the 1.4–7.8-$\mu $m spectral range, Appl. Optics, 34, 6582–6586, 1995. Gow, A. J.: On the rates of growth of grains and crystals in south polar firn, J. Glaciol., 8, 241–252,1969. Grannas, A. M., Jones, A. E., Dibb, J., Ammann, M., Anastasio, C., Beine, H. J., Bergin, M., Bottenheim, J., Boxe, C. S., Carver, G., Chen, G., Crawford, J. H., Dominé, F., Frey, M. M., Guzmán, M. I., Heard, D. E., Helmig, D., Hoffmann, M. R., Honrath, R. E., Huey, L. G., Hutterli, M., Jacobi, H. W., Klán, P., Lefer, B., McConnell, J., Plane, J., Sander, R., Savarino, J., Shepson, P. B., Simpson, W. R., Sodeau, J. R., von Glasow, R., Weller, R., Wolff, E. W., and Zhu, T.: An overview of snow photochemistry: evidence, mechanisms and impacts, Atmos. Chem. Phys., 7, 4329–4373, 2007. Grenfell, T. C., Warren, S. G., and Mullen, P. C.: Reflection of solar radiation by the Antarctic snow surface at ultraviolet, visible, and near-infrared wavelengths, J. Geophys. Res., 99, 18669-18684, 1994. Grenfell, T. C. and Warren, S. G.: Representation of a nonspherical ice particle by a collection of independent spheres for scattering and absorption of radiation, J. Geophys. Res., 104, 31697–31709, 1999. Hall, A.: The role of surface albedo feedback in climate, J. Climate, 17, 1550–1568, 2004. Herbert, B. M. J., Halsall, C. J., Villa, S., Jones, K. C., and Kallenborn, R.: Rapid changes in PCB an OC pesticide concentrations in Arctic snow, Environ. Sci. Technol., 39, 2998–3005, 2005. Hidovi\'c-Rowe, D., Rowe, J. E., and Lualdi, M.: Markov models of integrating spheres for hyperspectral imaging, Appl. Optics, 45, 5248–5257, 2006. Honrath, R. E., Peterson, M. C., Guo, S., Dibb, J. E., Shepson, P. B., and Campbell, B.: Evidence of NO_x production within or upon ice particles in the Greenland snowpack, Geophys. Res. Lett., 26, 695–698, 1999. Jacobi, H.-W. and Hilker, B.: A mechanism for the photochemical transformation of nitrate in snow, J. Photochem. Photobiol. A., 185, 371–382, 2007. Jones, A. E., Weller, R., Anderson, P. S., Jacobi, H.-W., Wolff, E. W., Schrems, O., and Miller, H.: Measurements of NO_x emissions from the Antarctic snowpack, Geophys. Res. Lett., 28, 1499–1502, 2001. Kaempfer T. U. and Schneebeli, M.: Observation of isothermal metamorphism of new snow and interpretation as a sintering process, J. Geophys. Res., 112, D24101, doi:10.1029/2007JD009047, 2008. Kerbrat, M., Pinzer, B., Huthwelker, T., Gäggeler, H. W., Ammann, M., and Schneebeli, M.: Measuring the specific surface area of snow with X-ray tomography and gas adsorption: comparison and implications for surface smoothness, Atmos. Chem. Phys., 8, 1261–1275, 2008. Kokhanovsky, A. A.: Scaling constant and its determination from simultaneous measurements of light reflection and methane adsorption by snow samples, Opt. Lett., 31, 3282–3284, 2006. Legagneux, L., Cabanes, A., and Dominé, F.: Measurement of the Specific Surface Area of 176 Snow Samples Using Methane Adsorption at 77 K, J. Geophys. Res., 107(D17), 4335, doi:10.1029/2001JD001016, 2002. Matzl, M. and Schneebeli, M.: Measuring specific surface area of snow by near-infrared photography, J. Glaciol., 52, 558–564, 2006. Narita, H.: Specific surface of deposited snow II, Low Temp. Sci., A29, 69–81, 1971. Nolin, A. W. and Dozier, J.: A hyperspectral method for remotely sensing the grain size of snow, Remote Sens. Environ., 74, 207–216, 2000. Nelson, J.: Sublimation of ice crystals, J. Atmos. Sci., 55, 910–919, 1998. Painter, T. H., Molotch, N. P., Cassidy, M., Flanner, M., and Steffen, K.: Contact Spectroscopy for Determination of Stratigraphy of Optical Grain Siz, J. Glaciol., 53, 121–127, 2007a. Painter T. H., Barrett, A. P., Landry, C. C., Neff, J. C., Cassidy, M. P., Lawrence, C. R., McBride, K. E., and Farmer G. L.: Impact of disturbed desert soils on duration of mountain snow cover, Geophys. Res. Lett., 34, L12502, doi:10.1029/2007GL030284, 2007b. Perla, R., Dozier, J., and Davis, R. E.: Preparation of serial sections in dry snow specimens, J. Microsc., 141, 111–114, 1986. Picard, G., Arnaud, L., Domine, F., and Fily, M.: Determining snow specific surface area from near-infrared reflectance measurements: numerical study of the influence of grain shape, Cold Regions Sci. Technol., 56(1), 10–17, 2009. Pickering, J. W., Prahl, S. A., Vanwieringen, N., Beek, J. F., Sterenborg, H. J. C. M., and Vangemert, M. J. C.: Double-integrating-sphere system for measuring the optical properties of tissue, Appl. Optics, 32, 399–410, 1993. Schaepman-Strub, G., Schaepman, M. E., Painter, T. H., Dangel, S., and Martonchik, J. V.: Reflectance quantities in optical remote sensing-definitions and case studies, Remote Sens. Environ., 103, 27–42, 2006. Stamnes, K., Tsay, S. C., Wiscombe, W., and Jayaweera, K.: Numerically stable algorithm for discrete-ordinate-method radiative transfer in multiple scattering and emitting layered media, Appl. Optics, 27, 2502–2509, 1988. Taillandier, A.-S., Domine, F., Simpson, W. R., Sturm, M., Douglas, T. A., and Severin, K.: Evolution of the Snow Area Index of the subarctic snowpack in Central Alaska over a whole season. Consequences for the air to snow transfer of pollutants, Environ. Sci. Technol., 40, 7521–7527, 2006. Taillandier, A.-S., Domine, F., Simpson, W. R., Sturm, M., and Douglas, T. A.: The rate of decrease of the specific surface area of dry snow: isothermal versus temperature gradient conditions, J. Geophys. Res., 112, F03003, doi:10.1029/2006JF000514, 2007. Warren, S. G.: Optical properties of snow, Rev. Geophys. Space Phys., 20, 67–89, 1982. Warren, S. G.: Optical constants of ice from the ultraviolet to the microwave, Appl. Optics, 23, 1206–1225, 1984. Warren S. G. and Brandt, R. E.: Optical constants of ice from the ultraviolet to the microwave: A revised compilation, J. Geophys. Res., 113, D14220, doi:10.1029/2007JD009744, 2008. Wiscombe, W. J. and Warren, S. G.: A model for the spectral albedo of snow, I: Pure snow. J. Atmos. Sci., 37, 2712–2733, 1980. Zege, E., Katsev, I., Malinka, A., Prikhach, A., Polonsky, I.: New algorithm to retrieve the effective snow grain size and pollution amount from satellite data, Ann. Glaciol., 49, 139–144, 2008. Zender, C. S. and Talamantes, J.: Solar absorption by Mie resonances in cloud droplets, J. Quant. Spectrosc. Radiat. Transfer, 98, 122–129, 2006.